| Chapter 1. |
Process Equipment Fundamentals : Fictional Losses / Density Difference Induces Flow / Natural Thermosyphon Circulation / Reducing Hydrocarbon Partial Pressure / Distillation - First Application / Origin of Reflux / Glossary |
| Chapter 2. |
Basic Terms and Conditions |
| Chapter 3. |
How Trays Work- Flooding : History of Distillation /Tray types / Tray Efficiency / Downcomer Backup / Downcomer Clearance / Vapor-Flow Pressure Drop / Jet Flood / Incipient Flood / Tower Pressure Drop & Flooding / Optimizing Feed Tray Location / Catacarb CO2 Absorber Flooding
|
| Chapter 4. |
How Trays Work- Dumping -Weeping through Tray Decks : Tray Pressure Drop / Other Causes of Tray Inefficiency / Bubble-Cap Trays / New High Capacity Trays / Calculating Tray Efficiency |
| Chapter 5. |
Notes on Tray Design Details : Process Design Equipment Details |
| Chapter 6. |
Why Control Tower Pressure - Options for Optimizing Tower Operating
Pressure : Selecting an Optimum Tower Pressure / Raising Tower Pressure Target / Lowering Tower Pressure / The Phase Rule in Distillation
|
| Chapter 7. |
What Drives Distillation Towers - Reboiler Function : The Reboiler / Heat-Balance Calculations |
| Chapter 8. |
How Reboilers Work - Thermosyphon, Gravity Feed, and Forced : Thermosyphon Reboilers / Forced-Circulation Reboilers / Kettle Reboilers / Fouling / Vapor Binding in Steam Reboilers |
| Chapter 9. |
Inspecting Tower Internals : Tray Deck Levelness / Loss of Downcomer Seal Due to Leaks / Effect of Missing Caps / Repairing Loose Tray Panels / Improper Downcomer Clearance / Inlet Weirs / Seal Pans / Drain Holes / Vortex Breakers / Chimney Tray Leakage / Shear Clips / Bubble-Cap Trays / Final Inspection
|
| Chapter 10. |
How Instruments Work - Levels, Pressures, Flows, and Temperatures : Level / Foam Affects Levels / Pressure / Flow / Temperature
|
| Chapter 11. |
Packed Towers; Better than Trays? (Packed-Bed Vapor and Liquid Distribution) : How Packed Towers Work / Maintaining Functional & Structural Efficiency in Packed Towers / Advantages of Packing vs. Trays
|
| Chapter 12. |
Steam and Condensate Systems (Water Hammer and Condensate Backup, Steam-Side Reboiler Control) : Steam Reboilers / Condensing Heat Transfer Rates / Maintaining System Efficiency / Carbonic Acid Corrosion / Condensate Collection Systems / Deaerators / Surface Condensers |
| Chapter 13. |
Vapor Lock and Exchanger Flooding in Steam Systems : Function of a Steam Trap / Non-condensable Venting / Corrosive Steam / Condensate Drum / Condensate Drainage & Vapor Lock / Elevated Condensate Collection Drum |
| Chapter 14. |
Bubble Point and Dew Point (Equilibrium Concepts in Vapor-Liquid Mixtures) :
Bubble Point / Dew Point
|
| Chapter 15. |
Steam Strippers (Source of Latent Heat of Vaporization) : Heat of Evaporation / Stripper Efficiency |
| Chapter 16. |
Draw-Off Nozzle Hydraulics (Nozzle Cavitation Due to Lack of Hydrostatic
Head) : Nozzle Exit Loss / Critical Flow / Maintaining Nozzle Efficiency / Overcoming Nozzle Exit Loss Limits
|
| Chapter 17. |
Pumparounds and Tower Heat Flows (Closing the Tower Enthalpy Balance) : The Pumparound / Vapor Flow / Fractionation
|
| Chapter 18. |
Condensers and Tower Pressure Control (Hot-Vapor Bypass: Flooded Condenser Control) : Subcooling, Vapor Binding, and Condensation / Pressure Control |
| Chapter 19. |
Air Coolers (Fin-Fan Coolers) : Fin Fouling / Fan Discharge Pressure / Effect of Reduced Air Flow / Adjustments & Corrections to Improve Cooling / Designing for Efficiency |
| Chapter 20. |
Thermodynamics ( How it Applies to Process Equipment) : Why is Thermodynamics Important to the Plant Operator / The source of Steam Velocity / Converting Latent Heat to Velocity / Effect of Wet Steam / Steam Ejector Temperature Profile / Roto-Flow Turbo Expander / The Meaning of Entropy
|
| Chapter 21. |
Deaerators and Steam Systems (Generating Steam in Boilers and BFW
Preparation) : Boiler Feedwater / Boilers / Convective Section Waste-Heat Steam Generation
|
| Chapter 22. |
Steam Generation : Boiler Blowdown Rate / types of Steam-Generating Equipment / Boiler Feedwater Preparation / effect of Air Preheat on Boiler Capacity / Deaerator Operation / Boiler Feedwater Preheat / Boiler Thermal Efficiency / Sloped Demister |
| Chapter 23. |
Vacuum Systems: Steam Jet Ejectors : Theory of Operation / Converging & Diverging Compression / Calculations, Performance Curves & Other Measurements in Jet Systems / Optimum Vacuum Tower-Top Temperature / Measurement of a Deep Vacuum without Mercury
|
| Chapter 24. |
Steam Turbines (Use of Horsepower Valves and Correct Speed Control) : Principle of Operation & Calculations / Selecting Optimum Turbine Speed |
| Chapter 25. |
Surface Condensers (The Condensing Steam Turbine) : The Second Law of Thermodynamics / Surface Condenser Problems / Surface Condenser Heat-Transfer Coefficients
|
| Chapter 26. |
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers : Heat-Transfer Fouling Resistance : Allowing for Thermal Expansion / Heat-Transfer Efficiency / Exchanger Cleaning / Mechanical Design for Good Heat Transfer / Importance of Shell-Side Cross Flow / References |
| Chapter 27. |
Heat Exchanger Innovations : Smooth High Alloy Tubes / Low-Finned Tubes / Sintered Metal Tubes / Spiral Heat Exchangers / Tube Inserts / Twisted Tubes & Twisted Tube Bundle / Helical Tube Support Baffles / Reference
|
| Chapter 28. |
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers; Design Details : Selecting the Process Location / Design the Shell side for Ease of Cleaning |
| Chapter 29. |
Fired Heaters: Fire-and Flue-Gas Side (Draft and Afterburn; Optimizing Excess
Air) : Effect of Reduced Air Flow / Absolute Combustion / Draft / Air Leakage / Efficient Air – Fuel Mixing / Optimizing Excess Air / Air Preheating/ Lighting Burners
|
| Chapter 30. |
Fired Heaters: Process Side (Coking Furnace Tubes and Tube Failures) : Process Duty versus Heat Liberation / Heater Tube Failures / Flow in Heater Tubes / Low-NOx Burners / Tube Fire-Side Heaters |
| Chapter 31. |
Refrigeration Systems (An Introduction to Centrifugal Compressors) : Refrigerant Receiver / Evaporator Temperature Control / Compressor & Condenser Operation / Refrigerant Composition
|
| Chapter 32. |
Cooling Water Systems : Locating Exchanger Tube Leaks / Tube-Side Fouling / Changing Tube-Side Passes / Cooling Tower pH Control / Wooden Cooling Towers / Back-Flushing and Air Rumbling / Acid Cleaning / Increasing Water Flow / Piping Pressure Losses / Cooling Tower Efficiency / Wet Bulb Temperature
|
| Chapter 33. |
Catalytic Effects - Equilibrium and Kinetics : Kinetics vs. Equilibrium / Temperature vs. Time / Purpose of a Catalyst / Zero Order Reactions / Runaway Reaction / Common Chemical Plant and Refinery Catalytic Processes
|
| Chapter 34. |
Centrifugal Pumps: Fundamentals of Operation (Head, Flow, and Pressure) : Head / Starting NPSH Requirement / Pressure / Pump Impeller / Effect of Temperature on Pump Capacity
|
| Chapter 35. |
Centrifugal Pumps: Driver Limits (Electric Motors and Steam Turbines) : Electric Motors / Steam Turbines / Gears
|
| Chapter 36. |
Centrifugal Pumps: Suction Pressure Limits (Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head) : Cavitation & Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) / Sub-atmospheric Suction Pressure
|
| Chapter 37. |
Centrifugal Pumps - Reducing Seal and Bearing Failures : A Packed Pump / Mechanical Seal / Purpose of Seal Flush / Seal Leaks / Wasting External Seal Flush Oil / Double Mechanical Seal / Dry Seals / Application of Nitrogen Barrier Seals Using Double Mechanical Seals / Steam Use in Seal Chamber / Pressure Balancing Holes / Bearing Failures / Starting a Centrifugal Pump |
| Chapter 38. |
Control Valves : Pumps and Control Valves / Control Valve Position / Valve Position Dials / Air-to-Open Valves / Saving Energy in Existing Hydraulic Systems / Control Valve Bypasses / Plugged Control Valves
|
| Chapter 39. |
Separators: Vapor-Hydrocarbon-Water (Liquid Settling Rates) : Gravity Settling / Demisters / Entrainment Due to Foam / Water-Hydrocarbon Separators / Electrically Accelerated Water Coalescing / Static Coalescers
|
| Chapter 40. |
Gas Compression: The Basic Idea (The Second Law of Thermodynamics Made
Easy) : Relationship between Heat and Work / Compression Work (Cp - Cv)
|
| Chapter 41. |
Centrifugal Compressors and Surge (Overamping the Motor Driver) : Centrifugal Compressor Surge / Compressor Efficiency / Frequently Asked Questions about Centrifugal Compressors
|
| Chapter 42. |
Reciprocating Compressors (The Carnot Cycle; Use of Indicator Card) : Theory of Reciprocating Compressor Operation / The Carnot Cycle / The Indicator Card / Volumetric Compressor Efficiency / Unloaders / Rod Loading / Variable Molecular Weight
|
| Chapter 43. |
Compressor Efficiency (Effect on Driver Load) : Jet Engine / Controlling Vibration and Temperature Rise / Relative Efficiency / Relative Work – External Pressure Losses
|
| Chapter 44. |
Safety Concerns (Relief Valves, Corrosion, and Safety Trips) : Relief-Valve Plugging / Relieving to Atmosphere / Corrosion Monitoring / Alarms and Trips / Auto-ignition of Hydrocarbons / A Hazardous Piping Configuration / Paper Gaskets / Calculating Heats of Reaction / Hot Water Explodes Out of Manway |
| Chapter 45. |
Relief Valve System Design : Coke Drums / High-Pressure Fixed-Bed Reactors / Trayed Towers and Packed Columns / Liquid-Filled Vessels / Sour Water Strippers / Protecting Relief Valves from Fouling and Corrosion / Dual Relief Valves / Process Design Responsibility for Relief Valve Design / Relief Valve and Pressure-Sensing Connections / Heat Exchanger Safety Reliefs / Relief Valve Effluents / Maintaining Flare Header Positive Pressures / Leaking Relief Valves / Tray Failure Due to Relief Valves / Piper Alpha Rig Destruction |
| Chapter 46. |
Corrosion - Process Units : Erosive Velocities / Mixed Phase Flow / Carbonate Corrosion / Naphthenic Acid Attack / A Short History of Corrosion / Corrosion - Fired Heaters / Oil-Fired Heaters / Finned-Tube Corrosion / Field Identification of Piping Metallurgy |
| Chapter 47. |
Waste Water Strippers : Purpose of Sour Water Strippers / Two-Stage Sour Water Stripper / Tray Efficiency / Computer Simulation and Theoretical Tray Efficiency / Use of Caustic to Improve Stripping / Water Stripper Reboiler Corrosion and Fouling / Ballast Water Stripper |
| Chapter 48. |
Fluid Flow in Pipes (Basic Ideas to Evaluate Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Flow) : Field Engineer’s Method for Estimating Pipe Flow / Field Pressure Drop Survey / Line Sizing for Low-Viscosity and Turbulent Flow / Frictional Pressure Loss in Rough and Smooth Pipe / Special Case for Laminar Flow / Smooth Pipes and Turbulent Flow / Very Rough Pipes and Very Turbulent Flow / Non-Newtonian Fluids / Some Types of Flow Behavior / Viscoelastic Fluids / Identifying the Type of Flow Behavior / Apparent and Effective Viscosity of Non-Newtonian Liquids / Generalized Reynolds Numbers |
| Chapter 49. |
Super-Fractionation Separation Stage : First encounter with Super-Fractionation / Kettle Reboiler / Partial Condenser / Side Reboilers and Intercoolers |
| Chapter 50. |
Hand Calculations for Distillation Towers (Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium, Absorption, and Stripping Calculations) : Introduction / Bubble Point and Dew Point Calculations / The Absorption Factor or Stripping Factor Chart |
| Chapter 51. |
Computer Modeling and Control : Modeling a Propane-Propylene Splitter / Computer Control / Material Balance Problems in Computer Modeling |
| Chapter 52. |
Field Troubleshooting Process Problems : De-ethanizer Flooding / Elements of Troubleshooting / Field Calculations / Troubleshooting Tools / Field Measurements / Troubleshooting Methods |
| GLOSSARY |
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